Cichlids of the New World Part V -- Miscellaneous Genera and
Conclusion
by Dean Hougen
As published in Aqua News November/December 1994
A Publication of the Minnesota Aquarium Society
Aquarticles
Thus far in this series, I have presented cichlids with a wide range of morphology,
behavior, and ecology. From the high-bodied Discus of the black-waters of Amazonia, whose
fry feed almost exclusively on the slime-coat of their parents' bodies, to the elongate 'C.'
nicaraguense -- the only species of substrate-spawning cichlid known to lay
non-adhesive eggs. From the generalists that are the true Cichlasomas, to an entire
lineage of substrate-sifting specialists. From herbivores like Uaru amphiacanthoides to
"basket-mouthed" predators like Acaronia nasso.
But the diversity of the New World cichlids is broader still. I have yet to cover the
largest of the New World's cichlids, or some of its smallest. I have yet to mention an
entire lineage of torpedo-shaped cichlids with over 80 valid nominal species and many
still remaining to be described. I have thus far ignored one of the hobby's most popular
cichlids and many species that are virtually unknown. In this final instalment, I plan to
rectify this situation; to round up the odds and ends of the Neotropical Cichlidae and
present them here.
Unfortunately for the sake of take-home messages, this diversity works against the
making of any generalized recommendations for the potential keeper of these species. The
fish that would make perfect tankmates for some of the species in this instalment would
make perfect meals for others. The ideal tank set-up for some of these cichlids would
prove disastrous for others. For this reason, there will be no sections on keeping or
breeding, on water parameters or foods, or on anything else intended to apply to all the
species covered here in Part Five. Instead, there will be a conclusion to the whole
series, reviewing in brief the Cichlids of the New World.
The Lineages
Cichla
The genus Cichla forms a lineage all its own. It is the genus on which the
family Cichlidae is based, and yet in many ways Cichla species are most unusual
cichlids. Dr. Stiassny has argued that Cichla is most closely related to the
Crenicichlines (which will be discussed below), but this theory is not universally
accepted.
Cichla Schneider 1801
Cichla are the largest and most piscivorous of the New World cichlids. They
are believed to reach just over three feet long, excluding the tail fin, although the
largest documented specimens are somewhat smaller (1).
Unlike the predatory Basket-Mouths, False Basket-Mouths, and Pike Cichlids, all of which
feed on both fish and invertebrates, Cichla feed almost exclusively on fish as
adults. (As juveniles they take other prey in addition.) They are fast-swimming pursuit
predators, chasing down their targets, rather than simply taking "pot shots" at
passers-by, as do the other predatory cichlids.
There are several species of Cichla, but their taxonomy is still in revision.
They are collectively known as Peacock Bass, Lukunani, Tucunare, or Pavon by various
peoples and are fished extensively in their native habitat and at introduced locations.
In captivity, Cichla are difficult to wean onto prepared foods, but it can be
done (see Newman). They should obviously not be kept with small tank-mates, which they
will readily consume. Less obviously, they should also not be housed with overly
aggressive fishes. Their jaw structures are fragile and may be damaged by combat. No
Cichla species has yet been bred in the home aquarium, but in the wild or in ponds
they may lay as many as 10,000 eggs.
Crenicichlines
Crenicichlines, as the name implies, are cichlids related to the Pike Cichlids of the
genus Crenicichla. These are extremely elongated fish, with a circular
cross-section. They bear a superficial resemblance to the tiny Crenicarines, which will be
covered below. This resemblance caused earlier authors to suppose a close relation between
the Crenicichlines and Crenicarines (e.g. Loiselle, p. 219). This theory is not currently
accepted, however (see Stiassny, 1991).
Pike Cichlids have been widely thought of as huge (12"+), fish-gulping monsters.
There even seems to be a tendency to confuse them with Snake-Heads (e.g. Channa
micropeltes, the Red Snakehead) despite the facts that Pike Cichlids are strictly
South American in origin while Snake-Heads originate in Africa, Asia, and New Guinea and,
more importantly, Snake-Heads are not cichlids or even closely related to them.2 As
hobbyists become more sophisticated, hopefully this mistake will disappear.
Hopefully, the misperception that all Pike Cichlids are huge and piscivorous will
disappear as well. Recent articles (e.g. those by Leibel) have already begun to chip away
at this notion, introducing cichlid fanciers to the diverse range of Pike Cichlids which
includes dwarf species that get no longer than 3".
All Crenicichlines are currently said to belong to the genus Crenicichla,
although other genera (most notably Teleocichia Kullander 1988 and Batrachops
Heckel 1840) have been recognised in the past.
Crenicichia Heckel 1840
The genus Crenicichia was recently reviewed by Alex Ploeg as a doctoral
dissertation. He recognised 72 species as valid, 15 of them new. Since then more species
have been described and there are currently over eighty recognised species in the genus.
Ploeg recognised five species groups within the genus, although some experts (e.g.
Warzel, pers. comm.) disagree with his divisions. Ploeg's species groups are the
saxatilis-group (mid-sized species, growing to 8" SL), the lngubris-group
(large-sized species with small scales, growing to 12" SL), the wallacii-group
(dwarf species, growing to 3 1/2" SL; includes the species Kullander assigned to Teleocichia),
the reticulata-group (robust species; includes several species formerly assigned to Batrachops),
and the lacustris-group (which includes medium to large Pike Cichlids with large scales).
Most Pike Cichlids are specialized ambush-predators which feed on fish and aquatic
invertebrates. Some, however, like the former Teleocichla species, have small
mouths and probably do not consume many fish. One recently described species, Crenicichla
tendybaguassu Lucena and Kullander 1992, has huge "hypertrophied" lips like
those of 'Cichlasoma' labiatus or Labochilotes labiatus (from Lake
Tanganyika). The exact function of these lips is unclear, but one hypothesis is that they
are pressed over crevices in the rocks and used as gaskets so that insects or other prey
may be sucked out. Gut analysis of two specimens of C. tendybaguassu yielded
aquatic insect larvae, snails, and adult insects.3 Most Pike Cichlids have not been
spawned in captivity, nor have field observations been made for most species. Those
species for which we have spawning information have shown remarkable similarities with
West African Chromidotilapiines. Everything from sexual dimorphism (red-bellies on
females, light regions on dorsal fins of females, etc.) and mating behaviors (females
curving and displaying their bellies to males, female initiation of courting behavior,
etc.) to egg placement (cave roofs) and attachment (filaments connecting the small end of
the eggs to the spawning site). Most authors (e.g. Leibel, 1992b, p. 20), have asserted
that these similarities are the result of convergent evolution rather than a common
ancestry, but as more and more similarities are discovered this position is becoming less
and less tenable.
Of the Pike Cichlids spawned in captivity, most have proven to be excellent parents
which care for their fry for a few months after spawning, rather than a few weeks as is
more typical for other cichlids.
Crenicarines
The dwarf Checkerboard Cichlids comprise the Crenicarine lineage. These are elongate
species with an overall body shape similar to that of the Crenicichlines. Details of their
internal morphology, however, seem to indicate a closer relationship to the Geophagines.
For many decades Crenicara was the only recognised genus of Crenicarine, but
recently Kullander has resurrected the genus Dicrossus (which was erected at the
same time and by the same author as Crenicara) and has added a third genus
belonging to this lineage.
The Crenicarines which have been bred in captivity have proven to be open spawners, at
least inasmuch as they are not cave spawners. They do prefer some measure of privacy, and
often spawn on the broad leaves of plants. They will sometimes spawn harem-fashion, if
more females than territorial males are present.
Dicrossus Steindachner 1875
In the hobby, the best known species of Crenicarine is Dicrossus filamentosus, referred
to as the Lyre-Tailed Checkerboard Cichlid. All but the most recent aquarium books list
this fish as Crenicara filamentosa. A second species, Dicrossus maculatus, is sporadically
found in the hobby. It can be easily be distinguished by the spade-shaped caudal fin of
the males. Two other species, as of yet undescribed, are known. One of them is pictured in
Linke and Staeck (page 181).
All species of Dicrossus are extremely slender fish found in acidic blackwaters in
Amazonia. They are difficult to maintain in captivity and even more difficult to induce to
spawn. Their water should be warm (at least 80 degrees F), soft, peaty, and acidic. They
should be provided with a planted tank with plenty of hiding places and dither fish (such
as Cardinal Tetras) to calm them.
Crenicara Steindachner 1975
Crenicara punctulatum is generally thought of as "the other Checkerboard
Cichlid" by aquarists. C. punctulatum has a more robust body shape than the
better known Dicrossus filamentosus. In fact, even in the late 1970s, some
authors (e.g. Winkelmann) insisted on referring to C. punctulatum as Aequidens
hercules, a junior synonym, because its more robust nature reminded them of Aequidens
species rather than the Lyre-Tailed Checkerboard Cichlid.
Crenicara punctulatum is easily sexed by the orange pelvic and anal fins of
the females. Interestingly, a female may change sex and become a fully functional male if
no male is present.
Recently, a second species of Crenicara has been added. C. lamincularium can
be easily distinguished by aquarists due to the three oblique cheek stripes it possesses.
(C. punctulatum lacks cheek stripes.)
Mazarunia Kullander 1990
The third genus of Crenicarine, Mazarunia, has but a single species, M.
macaroni. Both the genus and species name refer to the blackwater Macaroni River
(found on the Guiana Plateau), where the type series was collected.
Like Crenicara, Mazarunia are more robust than Dicrossus. Nothing is
known about their breeding or keeping, other than what can be inferred from their
relationship to the other Checkerboard Cichlids.
Bietoecus
One of the least known cichlid genera from South America is Biotoecus. In
1986, Kullander had considered Biotoecus a Geophagine cichlid, but his further
studies (as published in 1989) have led him to conclude that this is not the case.
Currently, no close alliance with any other genus is recognizable.
Bioloecus Eigenmam & Kennedy 1903
Until recently there was only a single species in the genus -- B. opercularis.
In 1989, however, Kullander added a second species -- B. dicentrarchus.
Biotoecus superficially resemble Crenicarines. They are elongated, dwarf
cichlids, whose primary body markings are series of dark splotches in horizontal rows on
the fish's flanks and backs. Their keeping requirements are the same (and every bit as
stringent) as those for the Crenicarines, but they are cave-spawners, rather than
open-spawners. They are extremely difficult to keep and to breed.
The first successful aquarium spawning of B. opercularis was accomplished by
Rosario La Corte in 1977, and this feat was not duplicated by another aquarist for fifteen
years. Even though La Corte reported on this success with a 1982 article in FAMA (complete
with photographs), German aquarists (often reputed to be the best in the world) were still
reporting that nothing was known about the spawning of this fish a decade later.
Taeniacara
Taeniacara has several traits in common with Geophagines, and perhaps could
have been treated in part four of this series, alongside Apistogramma and Apistogrammoides.
It also resembles the Crenicarines and Biotoecus, especially from an aquarist's
perspective, so I am covering it here.
Taeniacara Myers 1935
Taeniacara is a monotypic genus, containing only Taeniacara candidi.
Another elongate dwarf cichlid, T. candidi most closely resembles Dicrossus
maculatus due to its huge, spade-shaped tail. No close relationship to that species
is supposed, however.
Like the other dwarf cichlids covered in this instalment, T. candidi is a
blackwater species that is difficult to keep and breed. Like Biotoecus opercularis, T.
candidi is a cave spawner and is harem polygynous.
Chaetobranchines
Chaetobranchines are odd, seemingly primitive South American cichlids which differ from
most cichlids in many respects. They are high-bodied (though not slim) fish with large
mouths. They are little known in the aquarium, although that situation is beginning to
change (Dietrich, pers. comm.).
Chaetobranchus Heekel 1840
There are two recognised species of Chaetobranchus -- Chaetobranchus flavescens,
which is rarely found in the hobby, and Ch. semifasciatus, which is even less
commonly encountered. In overall body shape, Ch. flavescens resembles Acaronia,
so some aquarists have labeled it the Combtail Basketmouth. No close relationship between Chaetobranchus
and Acaronia is known however.
Unlike the Basketmouths, Chaetobranchus species are specialized planktivores.
Leibel reports that they will take freeze-dried krill and various frozen foods in
captivity.4
Lowe-McConnell (1969, p. 271), reports that Chaetobranchus flavescens is a
seasonal breeder which spawns during the summer rains. She suggests that it may be a
mouth-brooder, but this speculation is based only on the fact that it lacks a caudal
ocellus. (The caudal ocellus has been shown to be important orientation of fry to their
parents.) This same author has also suggested (1964, p. 127) that in good growing years,
Ch. flavescens (and other medium to large cichlids) may reach sexual maturity in a
single year.
Chaetobranchopsis Steindachner 1875
The species of Chaetobranchopsis are even less well known than those of Chaetobranchus,
both to science and in the aquarium hobby. Previous authors have recognized three species
in this genus, but Kullander has suggested that there may only be one or two5. In 1985,
Loiselle reported current thinking was that Chaetobranchus and Chaetobranchopsis
were superficially similar, but not closely related. In 1991, however, Stiassny indicated
that these genera were most closely related to one another.
Chaetobranchopsis are unlikely to soon become established aquarium fish.
Leibel reports that their planktivory apparently consists of straining small zooplankton
from the water and generally slowly starve to death in aquaria.
Astranotus Swainson 1839
The final genus of New World cichlid is Astronotus. While the Oscar is one of
the most popular hobby cichlids, perhaps Astronotus needs to be reintroduced to
aquarists to clear up some confusions about these fascinating fishes.
Oscars are often said to be Astronotus ocellatus as this has long been the
only recognised species of Astronotus. It is clear, however, that several species
of Astronotus exist, although thus far only Astronotus crassipinnis has
been removed from synonymy with A. ocellatus. Several other names (e.g. Astronotus
zebra) may also be restored and perhaps new species described as well, although much
of the study for these revisions still remains to be conducted. At this time it is
impossible to say which species of Astronotus the Oscar was derived from, or even
whether or not it is a hybrid.
According to Stiassny, the genus Astronotus is closely allied to Chaetobranchus and
Chaetobranchopsis. Unlike the two previously discussed genera, Astronotus is not a
planktivore. Neither is it a specialized piscivore, however, although it is often treated
as such by aquarists. Gut analysis reveals that, like the majority of New World cichlids,
Astronotus have a varied diet. Besides fish, wild Astronotus consume large quantities of
aquatic invertebrates and terrestrial plant material.(6) For
this reason, most pelletized or extruded aquarium foods provide sufficient fish meal for
Oscars, and supplemental feedings of feeder fish only serve to increase the introduction
of pathogens to the aquarium.
Oscars have something of a reputation for aggression. In fact, however, this reputation
is little deserved. This reputation is probably due to inexperienced aquarists who do not
understand two important facts about Oscars. First, Oscars have large mouths and will
attempt to eat any fish that appears small enough to be consumed (and apparently are prone
to overestimate the size of their mouths). Second, Oscars, like other cichlids, are
territorial and their large adult size (approximately one foot) precludes most tank-mates
in typically small home aquariums. If housed in large aquaria (70 gallons or larger) and
with appropriately large tank-mates, Oscars are unlikely to cause trouble for the other
tank residents.
Finally, there are probably as many methods to sex Oscars as there are get-rich-quick
schemes on late-night television, and (aside from venting the fish 7)
all have approximately the same value: none. Oscars are sexually isomorphic and
isochromatic. In a particular pair the male may have larger unpaired fins, for example,
but in the next pair this "trait" may be reversed.
Conclusion
This concludes both this instalment and the entire five part series I have entitled
Cichlids of the New World. I have tried to exhaustively cover the neotropical cichlids at
a generic level and I have probably succeeded at exhausting those of you who had the
interest to try to wade your way through these articles. I hope I have also succeeding in
giving you some tools to help you understand your cichlids better.
One of the best ways to understand your fish is to try to recognize how they are
related to one another. Both Geophagus and Apistogramma make more sense,
at least to me, by noting the similarities they share by virtue of their membership in the
larger grouping known as Geophagines. So I have attempted to introduce you to these
informal groupings falling between the level of the family and that of the genus.
On the other hand, you are less likely to have problems with your cichlids if you know
that Festivums (Mesonauta festivus) and Jaguar Cichlids ('Cichlasoma
(Nandopsis) 'managuense, for instance, are quite dissimilar, despite the fact that
they were both at one time included in the genus Cichlasoma. I have therefore
used the narrower genera proposed by Kullander for the South American cichlids and the
informal section names widely used for their Central American counterparts.
These classifications, both those broader and those narrower than the ones used in
older aquarium literature, have allowed me to show the big picture so that further reading
and experience with neotropical cichlids can become part of a coherent whole, while still
focusing on enough details to give the careful reader a start with any particular species
of New World cichlid. That is how I hope this series will be viewed -- as a starting
point, rather than an end. The extensive bibliographies that have accompanied the parts of
this series were provided not to take up space, but so that the reader could follow up
with more detailed literature on any aspect of the material covered in this series. Still,
many readers may find that list daunting, so I will provide a few quick
suggestions for further reading:
A Fishkeeper's Guide to South American Cichlids by Wayne Leibel. This book
belongs to that wonderful Tetra Press series of small and specialized texts. The
information is up-to date, concise, and accurate. Leibel is the foremost American
authority on South American cichlids in the aquarium. Unfortunately, the size of the book
limits the amount of information this work contains.
The Cichlid Aquarium by Paul Loiselle. This has long been the cichlidiot's
bible. Unfortunately, the information is now over a decade old and parts of the text need
to be updated, as you may have noticed from comments I made in this series of articles. A
new and greatly revised edition is rumored to be just around the corner, but as each new
corner is rounded it fails to appear. (I first talked to Dr. Loiselle about this revised
edition in 1991.) I hope that it will be out soon but, until it is, the old standby is as
good a book on tropical fish as has ever been written.
These are my two strongest recommendations for books dealing with New World cichlids.
The series of articles written by Leibel for Aquarium Fish Magazine are another
good source of information on South American cichlids, but the series has its drawbacks.
First, the sometimes-rambling, multipart series (which has over twenty instalments so far
and is still growing) is definitely worth reading if one has the magazines available, but
purchasing them exclusively for this series gives a rather small return on one's dollar.
(Purchasing them as back issues would now cost over $100.00.) Second, despite Leibel's
attempts to straighten out common confusions regarding some popular species (e.g. the
"Jurupari" of the aquarium hobby, which is really Satanoperca
leucosticta) by providing accurate text and photographs to the magazine, the editors
placed incorrectly identified file photos into some of the articles -- furthering the
confusion, rather than solving it.
Some of the best books on New World cichlids were, unfortunately for most of us,
written in German. Of these, only Linke and Staeck's book on Dwarf Cichlids has been
translated into English. If you can read German, however, all of these books, as found in
the bibliographies of the parts of this series, are highly recommended.
Then there are Richter's and Vierke's books on Dwarf Cichlids, and the books on Central
American cichlids by Sands, by Konings, and by Conkel. All of these are good books, but
none of them are great and all of them have their drawbacks. Buy and read them (albeit
with a grain of salt in most instances) if you can get them at discount prices.
Finally, Wayne Leibel has a forthcoming book, to be published by TFH, on South American
cichlids. It is due out in 1995 and should prove to be accurate and more complete than his
Tetra Press book. I'm looking forward to it.
Until then, I hope you get the most out of the literature that's out there, including
this series of articles, and I hope you appreciate the Cichlids of the New World.
1 Loiselle, p. 217.
2 Not only do Snake-Heads belong in their own family
(Channidae), they constitute their own order (Channiformes). It would be less of a mistake
to confuse Pike Cichlids with Leaffish, Archerfish, Blennies, gobies, or Gouramis than it
is to confuse them with Snake-Heads. Nonetheless, the mistake is common enough that not
only have I encountered it personally several times, I have also found it to be documented
in the aquarium literature. The article was written by German author Uwe Were (1982c), so
presumably the mistake is international.
3 Lueena and Kullander, p. 124
4 1993, p. 77
5 Ibid
6 A summary table is provided by Lowe-McConnell, 1991, p.
66. For a more complete break-down of feeding habits of Astronotus (and several
other species of South American cichlids and many species of non-cichlids) as they relate
to environmental variables, see Goulding, et al
7 See Loiselle, p. 119-120 for instructions and a diagram of
how to sex cichlids by looking at their ventral regions.
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